Early Life and Civil War Service

William McKinley was born in Niles, Ohio, in 1843, the seventh of nine children. He attended Allegheny College briefly before financial difficulties forced him to withdraw. When the Civil War began, the 18-year-old McKinley enlisted as a private in the 23rd Ohio Infantry, where he served under future president Rutherford B. Hayes. McKinley distinguished himself at the Battle of Antietam, earning a promotion to second lieutenant for his bravery in bringing food and coffee to troops under fire. He ended the war as a brevet major, a title he preferred for the rest of his life.

After the war, McKinley studied law and established a practice in Canton, Ohio. In 1871, he married Ida Saxton, daughter of a prominent local banker. Their marriage was marked by tragedy when both of their young daughters died, and Ida developed epilepsy and became an invalid. McKinley devoted himself to caring for his wife, and his tenderness toward her became well known and added to his public image as a man of character and compassion.

Political Rise and the Tariff Issue

McKinley entered politics as a Republican, winning election to Congress in 1876. He served in the House of Representatives for 14 years, becoming the Republican Party's leading expert on protective tariffs. McKinley championed high tariffs as essential to American prosperity, arguing they protected American workers and industries from foreign competition. His name became synonymous with protectionism through the McKinley Tariff of 1890, which raised average tariff rates to nearly 50 percent.

Though the McKinley Tariff contributed to Republican losses in the 1890 elections and McKinley's own defeat, it enhanced his national reputation within the party. He won election as Governor of Ohio in 1891 and 1893, positioning himself for a presidential run. With the support of wealthy Ohio industrialist Mark Hanna, who became his campaign manager and closest political advisor, McKinley secured the Republican nomination in 1896.

The Election of 1896

The 1896 election became one of the most significant in American history, a dramatic contest over the nation's economic direction. McKinley faced Democrat William Jennings Bryan, who electrified the convention with his "Cross of Gold" speech advocating free silver. Bryan campaigned energetically across the country, while McKinley conducted a "front porch campaign" from his home in Canton, where delegations came to hear him speak.

With Mark Hanna orchestrating an unprecedented and well-funded campaign, McKinley won decisively, carrying the industrial Northeast and Midwest while Bryan dominated the agricultural South and West. McKinley's victory represented a triumph for industrial capitalism and the gold standard, and marked the beginning of Republican dominance in presidential politics that would last for most of the next 36 years.

Economic Recovery and the Gold Standard

McKinley entered office as the economy was recovering from the depression of the 1890s. He immediately called a special session of Congress to raise tariff rates through the Dingley Tariff of 1897, which raised average rates to 52 percent, the highest in American history to that point. The economy improved dramatically during McKinley's first term, with industrial production increasing and unemployment falling, which Republicans attributed to their protectionist policies.

In 1900, McKinley signed the Gold Standard Act, formally placing the United States on the gold standard and ending the bitter debate over free silver that had dominated politics in the 1890s. This legislation confirmed McKinley's economic philosophy and provided monetary stability that supported continued economic growth.

The Spanish-American War

The defining event of McKinley's presidency was the Spanish-American War of 1898. For years, Cuban revolutionaries had fought for independence from Spain, and American sympathy for the Cuban cause grew, fueled by sensationalist "yellow journalism" from newspapers like William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal and Joseph Pulitzer's New York World. When the USS Maine exploded in Havana harbor on February 15, 1898, killing 266 American sailors, public opinion turned decisively toward war.

McKinley initially resisted the war fever, seeking a diplomatic solution to the Cuban crisis. But when Spain refused American demands, and with Congress and the public clamoring for action, McKinley asked Congress for authority to intervene in Cuba. On April 25, 1898, Congress declared war. The conflict lasted just 113 days and ended in complete American victory. The Treaty of Paris, signed in December 1898, forced Spain to grant Cuba independence and cede Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States for $20 million.

American Imperialism and the Philippines

The acquisition of the Philippines presented McKinley with his greatest challenge. He later claimed he prayed for guidance and concluded that the United States had a duty to "educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them." This paternalistic view reflected the era's racist assumptions about American superiority and the "white man's burden."

Filipino revolutionaries led by Emilio Aguinaldo, who had fought against Spain expecting independence, rebelled against American occupation. The resulting Philippine-American War lasted from 1899 to 1902, cost more American lives than the Spanish-American War, and resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Filipinos. The brutal conflict raised serious questions about American imperialism and the extension of constitutional rights to overseas territories.

Election of 1900 and Second Term

McKinley won re-election in 1900, again defeating William Jennings Bryan, who made anti-imperialism a major campaign issue. McKinley's running mate was the young, energetic Governor of New York, Theodore Roosevelt, chosen to balance the ticket despite Mark Hanna's reservations about Roosevelt's reform tendencies. McKinley's victory was even more decisive than in 1896, confirming public support for his policies.

McKinley began his second term focused on foreign trade expansion and reciprocal trade agreements. He increasingly saw high protective tariffs as potentially limiting American exports and began advocating for more nuanced trade policies. In September 1901, he traveled to Buffalo, New York, to speak at the Pan-American Exposition, where he gave an address calling for reciprocal trade agreements to expand American commerce.

Assassination

On September 6, 1901, while greeting visitors at the Pan-American Exposition, McKinley was shot twice at close range by Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist who claimed to be acting on behalf of the working class. One bullet was deflected by a button; the other entered his abdomen. McKinley initially appeared to recover, and doctors were optimistic, but gangrene set in around the bullet wound. On September 14, eight days after being shot, McKinley died at age 58.

McKinley's last words to his wife were reportedly, "We are all going, we are all going. God's will be done, not ours." His assassination shocked the nation and led to increased Secret Service protection for presidents. Theodore Roosevelt became president at age 42, the youngest person ever to hold the office. Czolgosz was quickly tried, convicted, and executed by electric chair on October 29, 1901.

Architect of American Empire

William McKinley's presidency marked a turning point in American history, transforming the United States from a continental power focused on internal development into a global empire with overseas possessions. The Spanish-American War and acquisition of the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam established the United States as a major player in international affairs and set precedents for American intervention abroad that would shape 20th-century foreign policy.

Economic Prosperity and the Gold Standard

McKinley's economic policies, particularly his commitment to protective tariffs and the gold standard, coincided with a period of significant economic growth and industrial expansion. While Republicans credited these policies with creating prosperity, critics argued that tariffs raised prices for consumers and that the gold standard limited economic flexibility. Nevertheless, the economic success during McKinley's presidency strengthened Republican electoral dominance for a generation.

The Imperial Presidency Question

The Philippines question raised fundamental issues about American democracy and empire. Could a republic founded on the principle that governments derive their power from the consent of the governed rule distant peoples without their consent? McKinley's decision to retain the Philippines, and the brutal war that followed, sparked the anti-imperialist movement and a national debate about American values that resonates to this day.

Tragic Death and Roosevelt's Succession

McKinley's assassination had profound consequences for American politics. His death brought Theodore Roosevelt to the presidency, ushering in the Progressive Era and a more active federal government than McKinley had envisioned. Roosevelt's dynamic presidency might not have occurred had McKinley lived, potentially altering the course of early 20th-century American history. McKinley is generally remembered as a transitional figure who presided over America's emergence as a world power but whose own vision was more cautious than his successor's.